1626 - 1699 Women. Religion, & Society in the New York

 

Religion and Society in the New York Colony (1626-1699)

Introduction

An Examination of Religious Influence, Settler Origins, and Women's Roles

The colony of New York, originally founded as New Netherland by the Dutch in 1624 and later rebranded as New York after the English takeover in 1664, became a unique melting pot of religious, cultural, and social influences. From its inception, New York experienced significant shifts in religious dynamics, settlers' origins, and women's societal roles, shaped by both Dutch tolerance and English governance. This essay analyzes the dominant religions in New York between 1626 and 1699, the settlers' diverse backgrounds and motivations, the religious expectations for women, and the roles women held—or were excluded from—in governance.

Dominant Religions in New York (1626-1699)

Religious diversity defined New York between 1626 and 1699, a legacy from its Dutch origins and subsequent English control. During the Dutch period (1626-1664), the Dutch Reformed Church was the official religion, operating within a framework of Calvinist doctrine, which emphasized predestination, discipline, and the importance of a morally upright life. Despite this official status, the Dutch authorities allowed a degree of religious tolerance unusual for the time, enabling other Protestant sects, Catholics, and even Jews to worship in the colony.

Following the English seizure of New Amsterdam in 1664, the Anglican Church (Church of England) gained greater visibility, though it never reached the level of dominance seen in other English colonies. Anglican doctrine, emphasizing the sacraments, episcopal hierarchy, and the Book of Common Prayer, coexisted with the Dutch Reformed Church and other Protestant denominations like Lutherans, Presbyterians, and Quakers. New York’s Jewish community, one of the earliest in North America, also continued to flourish, contributing to New York’s reputation as one of the most religiously diverse colonies in British America.

Origins of the Settlers

The early settlers of New York (1626-1699) reflected a mix of backgrounds driven by economic, religious, and strategic motivations. Initially, the Dutch settlers, including traders, farmers, and artisans, arrived to support the Dutch West India Company's ambitions in fur trading and agriculture. Economic incentives played a substantial role in encouraging Dutch settlement, but religious freedom also drew persecuted groups seeking refuge from the more restrictive aspects of the Dutch Republic.

The English takeover in 1664 broadened New York’s appeal, attracting English settlers such as merchants, farmers, and craftsmen. French Huguenots fleeing religious persecution, Germans, Scandinavians, and Africans (brought as slaves) joined the colony’s mix, each adding to New York’s economic and cultural complexity. This diversity, combined with the colony’s prime location for trade, helped establish New York as a center for both commerce and cultural pluralism, where individuals sought economic opportunity, religious freedom, and a fresh start in the New World.

Religious Expectations of Women (1626-1699)

Religious expectations for women in New York (1626-1699) varied by faith but adhered broadly to the patriarchal norms of the time, emphasizing their roles as wives, mothers, and moral guides within the home. Under the Dutch Reformed Church, women were seen as spiritual equals to men but were expected to uphold strict gender roles. They were tasked with the religious upbringing of children and maintaining a disciplined, virtuous household—a reflection of Calvinist principles that valued modesty, obedience, and piety.

Under English rule, the Anglican Church upheld similar expectations, reinforcing women’s domestic roles and positioning men as the religious leaders of the family. While Anglicanism did not offer women religious leadership roles, more egalitarian religious communities, such as the Quakers, allowed women greater spiritual involvement. Quaker women could speak in meetings, reflecting the sect’s progressive beliefs in spiritual equality. Across most denominations, however, women’s religious roles remained limited to domestic duties, reinforcing a subordinate position within the family and community.

Women's Roles in Governance (1626-1699)

As in most colonies, women in New York had no formal roles in governance. The Dutch and later English administrations were male-dominated, excluding women from voting, holding office, or participating in formal decision-making processes. The Dutch West India Company initially administered the colony with a strong commercial and political hierarchy, followed by English-appointed governors and councils, both of which reinforced male control over political affairs.

Under Dutch rule, women enjoyed somewhat greater legal rights than their counterparts in English colonies, due to Dutch property laws influenced by Roman legal traditions. These laws allowed women, particularly widows, more control over property and business activities. However, these rights did not translate to political agency, and with the English takeover, women’s rights became further limited under the doctrine of coverture, which subsumed a woman’s legal identity under her husband’s.

Despite these restrictions, some women exerted influence indirectly through family connections, social status, or economic activities. Widows or women from wealthy families, involved in trade or estate management, occasionally influenced local decision-making. However, these instances remained exceptions, and women’s influence in governance was limited to informal channels.

Conclusion

Between 1626 and 1699, New York’s religious diversity, shaped by its Dutch roots and English influences, created a unique social landscape. The Dutch Reformed Church, Anglicanism, and a variety of Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish communities contributed to a pluralistic religious environment. Settlers came from diverse backgrounds, drawn by economic opportunities, religious freedom, and New York’s strategic position as a trade hub. Religious expectations for women reinforced traditional roles centered on domestic responsibilities, while their participation in governance remained largely absent. The complex interplay of religion, settler diversity, and governance in New York highlights the colony’s unique position as a religiously pluralistic and economically dynamic society in early America.

Bibliography

Books

Bonomi, Patricia U. Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America. Oxford University Press, 1986.

Burrows, Edwin G., and Mike Wallace. Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. Oxford University Press, 1999.

Goodfriend, Joyce D. Before the Melting Pot: Society and Culture in Colonial New York City, 1664-1730. Princeton University Press, 1992.

Jacobs, Jaap. The Colony of New Netherland: A Dutch Settlement in Seventeenth-Century America. Cornell University Press, 2009.

Murrin, John M. Rethinking America: From Empire to Republic. Oxford University Press, 2018.

Articles

Blumin, Stuart M. "The Emergence of a New Urban Society: New York City, 1760-1825." Journal of Urban History, vol. 2, no. 1, 1975, pp. 53-77. Blumin explores New York’s transformation into an urban society, noting how early diversity and economic motivations laid the foundation for its growth as a cosmopolitan center.

Cohen, David Steven. "The Dutch-American Farm." Agricultural History, vol. 59, no. 4, 1985, pp. 547-558. Cohen examines Dutch farming practices in New Netherland, offering insight into the economic motivations and agricultural structures that shaped early New York society.

Gould, Eliga H. "Entangled Histories, Entangled Worlds: The English-Speaking Atlantic as a Spanish Periphery." American Historical Review, vol. 112, no. 3, 2007, pp. 764-786. Gould analyzes the Atlantic world’s interconnectedness, discussing how New York’s diverse influences positioned it within broader imperial conflicts.

Goodfriend, Joyce D. "Burghers and Blacks: The Evolution of a Slave Society at New Amsterdam." The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 53, no. 2, 1996, pp. 383-408. Goodfriend traces the establishment of a slave society in New Amsterdam, examining the complex social relations between Dutch settlers, Africans, and later English influences.

Haefeli, Evan, and Jon Butler. "Revolution and Religion in Early America." Religion and American Culture, vol. 1, no. 2, 1991, pp. 139-168. Haefeli and Butler discuss the role of religion in shaping revolutionary sentiments, emphasizing New York’s diverse religious communities and their influence on political thought.

Snyder, Terri L. "Legal History of the Colonial Era." Journal of Women’s History, vol. 6, no. 2, 1994, pp. 124-132. Snyder examines legal precedents affecting women in colonial America, discussing the impact of Dutch and English legal systems on women’s rights in New York.

Zellers, Perry R. "New Netherland and the Dutch Origins of American Religious Liberty." Journal of Church and State, vol. 49, no. 4, 2007, pp. 703-731. Zellers explores how Dutch policies of religious tolerance in New Netherland influenced early American notions of religious liberty, setting a precedent in New York that persisted under English rule.

1620- 1699 Women, Religion, & Society in the colony of Massachusetts

 

Women. Religion, & Society in the Massachusetts Colony 

An Examination of Religious Influence, Settler Origins, and Women's Roles

Introduction

Modern-day Massachusetts traces its origins to the Plymouth Colony, established by the Pilgrims in 1620, and to the much larger Massachusetts Bay Colony, established by the Puritans in 1629. The Massachusetts Bay Colony quickly became a focal point for religious and social development in early New England, particularly between 1629 and 1699. Puritanism dominated the colony during this period, significantly shaping its social structure, governance, and expectations for women. This essay examines the dominant religions in Massachusetts during this time, the origins of its settlers, their motivations for coming to the New World, the expectations placed on women by the religious framework, the roles women held in governance, and the role of witchcraft beliefs in the colony.

Origins of the Settlers

English Puritans, who migrated during the Great Migration of the 1630s, made up the majority of settlers in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. These Puritans left England primarily to escape religious persecution and to practice their faith freely. They also sought to establish a community based on their religious principles, free from the perceived corruption of the Church of England. Many of these settlers came from East Anglia, a region in England where Puritanism was particularly strong. Middle-class families, including farmers, tradesmen, and merchants, composed the majority of the settlers. They believed they were entering into a covenant with God to create a "city upon a hill" in the New World, where they could live according to their strict religious values and influence the Anglican Church of England.

Dominant Religions in Massachusetts (1632-1699)

Puritanism dominated Massachusetts between 1629 and 1699. As a movement within Protestantism, Puritanism sought to "purify" the Church of England from what its followers considered corrupt practices and beliefs. The Puritans adhered to Calvinist theology, emphasizing predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the importance of a covenantal community. For the Puritans, religion was not merely a set of beliefs but a comprehensive worldview that influenced every aspect of life in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

The Puritans believed in the importance of a moral and disciplined community where the church played a central role in both spiritual and civil affairs. Each congregation was autonomous and governed by its members, with a minister as the spiritual leader. This congregational structure contrasted with the hierarchical Anglican Church.

Smaller religious groups, such as the Quakers and Baptists, also existed alongside the Puritans. However, the Puritans persecuted these groups for their beliefs. The Quakers, in particular, were known for their pacifism, belief in the "Inner Light," and opposition to the rigid social structures upheld by the Puritans. Despite their presence, Puritanism remained the overwhelmingly dominant force in the colony.

Religious Expectations of Women (1629-1699)

Puritanism profoundly influenced the roles and expectations of women in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. While Puritan theology considered women spiritual equals to men in the eyes of God, it also dictated that women remain subordinate to male authority in social and family structures. The Puritans emphasized the family as the foundation of both religious and civil life, assigning women the crucial role of maintaining the household and raising children.

The Puritans expected women to be pious, modest, and obedient to their husbands. Women bore the responsibility for the spiritual education of their children and were encouraged to read the Bible, though their public participation in religious life was limited. Women could not hold positions of authority in the church, and their involvement in public religious matters remained confined to roles aligned with their perceived nurturing nature, such as helping the poor or teaching young children. Despite these limitations, women constituted a majority of church members by the middle of the century.

Strict moral codes enforced by Puritanism dictated women's behavior. The Puritans expected women to dress modestly, avoid vanity, and adhere to the community's religious standards. Any deviation from these norms, such as expressing dissenting religious views or challenging male authority, could result in severe consequences. The cases of Anne Hutchinson and Mary Dyer, both of whom the colony persecuted for their religious beliefs, serve as stark examples.

Belief in Witches and Witchcraft

Belief in witches and witchcraft played a significant role in the religious worldview of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, especially during the late 17th century. The Puritans believed the Devil actively worked to undermine their godly society and that witches served as his agents on Earth. They based this belief on their interpretation of biblical texts and the widespread European belief in witchcraft at the time.

The Salem witch trials of 1692 represent the most extreme manifestation of these beliefs. During this period, a series of trials and executions occurred in response to accusations of witchcraft in the town of Salem and surrounding areas. The trials led to the execution of 20 people, mostly women, and the imprisonment of many others. Religious fervor, social tensions, and personal vendettas fueled the witch trials, but they fundamentally rested on the Puritan belief that the Devil could and did intervene in human affairs.

Women were particularly vulnerable to accusations of witchcraft, as the Puritans often saw them as morally weaker and more susceptible to the Devil's influence. This belief reflected broader societal views about gender, power, and authority. Women who were outspoken, independent, or deviated from expected norms were more likely to face accusations of witchcraft, as were those who were poor, widowed, or lacked male protection.

The witch trials left a lasting impact on the colony, revealing the dangers of religious extremism and the consequences of a rigid, theocratic society.

Women's Roles in Governance (1629-1699)

Women in the Massachusetts Bay Colony had no formal role in governance, reflecting the broader patriarchal structure of Puritan society. The Puritans concentrated political and religious power in the hands of men, particularly those who were full church members, known as "freemen." These freemen had the right to vote in elections, hold public office, and participate in town meetings where they made decisions about the community. Women, regardless of their social or religious standing, were excluded from these activities.

The absence of women in governance extended to the church, where only men could become ministers or serve as church elders. Although women often played active roles in their communities, their contributions were limited to informal or behind-the-scenes roles, such as advising their husbands or participating in charitable work. Women's influence in public life remained largely indirect, exercised through their relationships with men who held formal power.

Conclusion

Between 1629 and 1699, Puritanism dominated the Massachusetts Bay Colony, profoundly shaping the colony's social structure, governance, and gender roles. The Puritan settlers, primarily from England, came to the New World to escape religious persecution and establish a society based on their strict religious principles. Puritanism imposed rigid expectations on women, confining them to the domestic sphere and limiting their participation in public life. The belief in witches and witchcraft, culminating in the Salem witch trials, further illustrates the intense religious fervor and the societal pressures women faced in the colony. As a result, women held no formal role in governance, with political and religious power firmly in the hands of men. The intersection of religion, gender, and governance in early Massachusetts reveals the deep influence of Puritanism on the colony's development and the lives of its inhabitants.

Bibliography

Books:

Anderson, Virginia DeJohn. New England's Generation: The Great Migration and the Formation of Society and Culture in the Seventeenth Century. Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Boyer, Paul, and Stephen Nissenbaum. Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft. Harvard University Press, 1974.

Bremer, Francis J. The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards. University Press of New England, 1995.

Demos, John Putnam. Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England. Oxford University Press, 1982.

Hall, David D. Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England. Harvard University Press, 1990.

Karlsen, Carol F. The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England. W.W. Norton & Company, 1987.

Morgan, Edmund S. The Puritan Family: Religion & Domestic Relations in Seventeenth-Century New England. Harper & Row, 1966.

Norton, Mary Beth. In the Devil's Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692. Vintage, 2003.

Winship, Michael P. Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America. Yale University Press, 2019.

Articles:

Amussen, Susan Dwyer. "Gender, Family, and the Social Order, 1560-1725." History Workshop Journal, vol. 39, 1995, pp. 39-52.

Breslaw, Elaine G. "Tituba's Confession: The Multicultural Dimensions of the 1692 Salem Witch-Hunt." Ethnohistory, vol. 44, no. 3, 1997, pp. 535-556.

Erikson, Kai T. "Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance." American Sociological Review, vol. 35, no. 3, 1970, pp. 537-538.

Gildrie, Richard P. "Moral Reform and Community Control: The Regulation of Sexuality in Puritan Massachusetts." Journal of Social History, vol. 19, no. 2, 1985, pp. 225-245.

Godbeer, Richard. "Witchcraft in British America." History Compass, vol. 8, no. 3, 2010, pp. 208-224.

Hoffer, Peter Charles. "The Salem Witch Trials: A Legal History." The Journal of American History, vol. 90, no. 2, 2003, pp. 485-487.

Kamensky, Jane. "Governing the Tongue: The Politics of Speech in Early New England." The New England Quarterly, vol. 68, no. 3, 1995, pp. 315-332.

Reis, Elizabeth. "The Devil, the Body, and the Feminine Soul in Puritan New England." Journal of American History, vol. 82, no. 1, 1995, pp. 15-36.

Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. "Vertuous Women Found: New England Ministerial Literature, 1668-1735." American Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 1, 1976, pp. 20-40.

Winship, Michael P. "Behold the Woman: The Anti-Feminist Backlash of the Puritan Reformation." Journal of Women’s History, vol. 19, no. 1, 2007, pp. 116-143.

Ziff, Larzer. "Puritanism and the 'Pedestrian Pleasures' of Massachusetts Bay Colony." Early American Literature, vol. 23, no. 1, 1988, pp. 51-70.

1636-1699 Women, Religion, & Society in the colony of Rhode Island

 

1636-1699: Women, Religion, and Society in the Rhode Island Colony

Introduction

An Analysis of Religious Influence, Settler Origins, and Women's Roles

Founded in 1636 by Roger Williams as a haven for religious dissenters, Rhode Island became a unique colonial experiment in religious tolerance and diversity. While most New England colonies adhered strictly to Puritan norms, Rhode Island welcomed settlers of various faiths, fostering a society that was notably distinct in its religious landscape and governance structure. Between 1636 and 1699, the colony’s openness to religious diversity influenced women’s roles and provided some social freedoms uncommon in neighboring colonies. This essay examines the dominant religious climate in Rhode Island, the origins of its settlers, the expectations placed on women within this religiously diverse society, and women’s limited role in governance.

Dominant Religion in Rhode Island (1636-1699)

Rhode Island’s religious landscape was characterized by a remarkable degree of pluralism, which contrasted sharply with the strictly Puritan societies of neighboring colonies. Roger Williams established Rhode Island on principles of religious freedom, creating a colony where no single denomination held dominance. The charter of 1663 explicitly guaranteed religious tolerance, allowing Baptists, Quakers, Jews, and other dissenting groups to practice freely. This pluralism fostered a society without an official church, where citizens were free to follow personal convictions without facing government interference or compulsion.

This freedom attracted diverse religious groups, including Baptists, who quickly became influential, and Quakers, who sought refuge from persecution in Puritan Massachusetts. Both groups influenced the colony’s social structure, emphasizing principles of individual conscience and religious equality. The presence of these tolerant religious groups allowed for greater acceptance of women’s participation in religious life, though leadership roles remained largely reserved for men.

Origins of the Settlers

Rhode Island’s settlers were primarily religious dissenters from England and other New England colonies, including Massachusetts. Roger Williams, expelled from Massachusetts for his outspoken views on religious tolerance and the separation of church and state, led a group that laid the foundations for a society based on freedom of conscience. Many Quakers, fleeing persecution in Massachusetts, joined the colony and contributed to its social diversity. In addition to these English settlers, Rhode Island’s population included a small but significant community of Jews, who established one of the earliest Jewish congregations in North America in Newport.

Rhode Island’s reputation as a refuge for those who faced religious and political discrimination attracted a steady flow of individuals seeking greater freedom. The colony’s diverse settler origins and commitment to individual liberty shaped a culture that valued personal autonomy and minimized centralized authority. This atmosphere allowed for some flexibility in women’s roles compared to the rigidly structured Puritan societies of neighboring colonies.

Religious Expectations of Women (1636-1699)

Rhode Island’s religious diversity led to a variety of expectations for women, depending on their religious affiliations. In the Baptist and Quaker communities, women often found more acceptance and respect than they did in strictly Puritan colonies. Quakers, in particular, advocated for spiritual equality between men and women, a belief that influenced their worship practices and allowed women to preach and participate actively in religious gatherings. Rhode Island Quaker women were known to lead meetings and take on community responsibilities within the Society of Friends, demonstrating an unusual level of autonomy for women in colonial America.

Baptist beliefs, though not as egalitarian as Quaker views, also allowed for some flexibility in women’s roles, encouraging them to participate in church gatherings, though without formal leadership positions. In addition to their spiritual duties, women in Rhode Island often engaged in community service, caring for the sick, teaching children, and assisting in charitable activities. Although the absence of a dominant state church created an environment of religious tolerance, most religious communities in Rhode Island maintained traditional gender roles, with women’s contributions confined largely to domestic and supportive spheres.

Women's Roles in Governance (1636-1699)

While Rhode Island’s commitment to religious freedom and individual rights provided an environment of relative social liberty, women’s roles in governance were still limited by the patriarchal norms of the period. The colony’s government, organized around a representative assembly and town meetings, allowed only free men to vote and hold office. As in other colonies, political power in Rhode Island remained firmly in the hands of male landowners, excluding women from formal roles in governance.

Despite these restrictions, Rhode Island’s lack of a dominant church and its decentralized government allowed women to exert influence indirectly. In Quaker communities, women could shape local decisions by participating in women’s meetings that discussed community matters and influenced family-based property decisions. Wealthy widows or women from prominent families also wielded informal power, occasionally influencing decisions within their communities, though without official titles or authority.

Conclusion

Between 1636 and 1699, Rhode Island’s distinctive approach to religious tolerance and individual liberty created a society where women experienced a unique blend of autonomy and constraint. The colony’s pluralistic religious environment, populated by Baptists, Quakers, Jews, and other groups, contrasted with the restrictive Puritanism of nearby colonies and allowed women greater participation in religious and community life. However, traditional gender roles still confined women to domestic and supportive functions, with political and religious leadership firmly in male hands. Rhode Island’s commitment to religious freedom and tolerance reveals how differing ideologies could create diverse experiences for women in colonial America, even within the confines of a patriarchal society.

Bibliography

Books

Andrews, Charles M. The Colonial Period of American History. Yale University Press, 1934.

Breen, T. H. Puritans and Adventurers: Change and Persistence in Early America. Oxford University Press, 1980.

Butler, Jon. Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People. Harvard University Press, 1990.

Dayton, Cornelia Hughes. Women before the Bar: Gender, Law, and Society in Connecticut, 1639-1789. University of North Carolina Press, 1995.

Foster, Lawrence. Religion and Sexuality in Early America. Oxford University Press, 1981.

Gunn, Giles. Early American Literature and Culture: Essays Honoring Harrison Hayford. University of Wisconsin Press, 2004.

Hodges, Graham Russell. Root and Branch: African Americans in New York and East Jersey, 1613-1863. University of North Carolina Press, 1999.

Kamensky, Jane. Governing the Tongue: The Politics of Speech in Early New England. Oxford University Press, 1997.

Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia. W. W. Norton & Company, 1975.

Richards, Jennifer. Rethinking Puritan Gender: Law, Religion, and Ideology in Early New England. Routledge, 2020.

Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. Good Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650-1750. Alfred A. Knopf, 1982.

Winship, Michael P. Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America. Yale University Press, 2018.

Articles

Bremer, Francis J. "Religious Freedom in Rhode Island and the Influence of Roger Williams." New England Quarterly, 1995. Bremer examines how Roger Williams' ideals of religious freedom fostered a unique cultural and religious tolerance in Rhode Island, contrasting with the restrictive Puritanism of other New England colonies.

Dayton, Cornelia Hughes. "The Role of Quaker Women in Rhode Island Society." William and Mary Quarterly, 2000. Dayton explores the influence of Quaker women in Rhode Island, focusing on their religious and social roles, which offered them greater freedom compared to women in Puritan communities.

Foster, Thomas. "The Quaker Influence on Gender Roles in Rhode Island." Journal of American History, 2004. Foster discusses how Quaker beliefs in spiritual equality led to unique roles for women within Rhode Island’s religious landscape, with a specific focus on their participation in community affairs.

Godbeer, Richard. "Roger Williams and the Evolution of Religious Tolerance in Rhode Island." American Journal of Legal History, 1992. Godbeer analyzes how Roger Williams’ policies on religious tolerance impacted social norms in Rhode Island, allowing for greater religious and social freedom, especially for women.

Hall, David D. "Dissenting Voices: Religion and Social Change in Rhode Island." Journal of American History, 1987. Hall examines Rhode Island’s pluralistic society, exploring how diverse religious groups influenced women’s roles within a more open social framework.

Karlsen, Carol F. "Quaker Women’s Spiritual Equality in Colonial Rhode Island." Journal of Social History, 1991. Karlsen studies how Quaker beliefs in equality allowed Rhode Island women to take on significant roles in religious meetings and community decisions, offering an alternative model of gender relations.

Norton, Mary Beth. "Gender and Public Speech in Colonial New England: Rhode Island as a Case Study." New England Quarterly, 1980. Norton discusses how women’s speech and public participation were managed in Rhode Island, where religious tolerance created some flexibility for women’s expression compared to other colonies.

Pestana, Carla Gardina. "Quaker Women and Political Influence in Rhode Island." American Journal of Legal History, 1989. Pestana focuses on the intersection of Quaker beliefs and women’s legal limitations, exploring how Quaker women exerted indirect political influence within the colony’s religious framework.

Reis, Elizabeth. "Gender, Religion, and Community: The Impact of Tolerance on Rhode Island Women." William and Mary Quarterly, 1998. Reis explores how Rhode Island’s tolerance for religious diversity allowed women more active roles in religious and social communities compared to neighboring colonies.

Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. "Alternative Models of Womanhood: Gender in Early Rhode Island." American Quarterly, 1986. Ulrich examines how Rhode Island’s pluralistic society led to different gender expectations, highlighting how women navigated religious and social roles in a more flexible environment.

Woodward, William W. "Social Freedom and Gender in Rhode Island’s Quaker Community." New England Law Review, 1994. Woodward analyzes how social freedom within the Quaker community allowed Rhode Island women greater personal autonomy and social roles.

Zanger, Jules. "Religious Freedom and Women’s Rights in Colonial Rhode Island." Historical Journal of Massachusetts, 1985. Zanger provides an overview of how religious tolerance in Rhode Island affected women’s rights, particularly within Quaker and Jewish communities.

1636-1699: Women, Religion, & Society in the colony of Connecticut

 

1636-1699: Women, Religion, and Society in the Connecticut Colony

Introduction

An Analysis of Religious Influence, Settler Origins, and Women's Roles

Connecticut Colony, founded by English Puritan settlers in 1636, became a community deeply shaped by religious values, governance structures, and societal norms. Puritan beliefs dominated social life, reinforcing a strict hierarchy and moral order that strongly influenced women’s roles and behaviors. This essay explores the dominant religion in Connecticut during this period, the origins of its settlers, the religious expectations placed on women, and their limited role in governance.

Dominant Religion in Connecticut (1636-1699)

From 1636 to 1699, Connecticut’s society was rooted in Puritanism, which dictated the colony’s moral and social values. The Puritan church, emphasizing a direct relationship with God and a disciplined, pious lifestyle, exerted influence over both governance and daily life. In 1639, the Fundamental Orders were established, forming a legal and religious framework to guide community conduct. Religious adherence was mandatory, with church membership a prerequisite for voting rights and civic participation.

Local churches and their ministers played an essential role in community governance, maintaining social order and moral conformity. Connecticut’s leaders viewed the colony as a “New England Zion,” an exemplary Christian community. This vision heavily impacted women, who were expected to embody purity, obedience, and modesty in both public and private life.

Origins of the Settlers

The majority of Connecticut’s early settlers came from England, specifically Puritan communities seeking religious freedom and escape from perceived corruption in the Church of England. These settlers, primarily from East Anglia and London, carried with them a strict, communal religious ethos. Motivated by the hope of creating a “city upon a hill,” they brought their beliefs in discipline, obedience, and social hierarchy to the New World. Alongside these English Puritans, smaller groups of Scots, Irish, and other Europeans arrived over time, though English settlers remained the predominant cultural and social group. In addition to free English settlers, a small number of African slaves arrived during the period, marking the beginning of Connecticut’s complex racial landscape.

Religious Expectations of Women (1636-1699)

Puritan ideology established clear, restrictive roles for women within the household and community, emphasizing subordination, modesty, and obedience. Religious doctrine taught that women, inherently susceptible to sin, needed to be guided by male authority. Connecticut’s laws and customs required women to respect and obey their husbands, dedicating themselves to domestic responsibilities such as child-rearing, cooking, and managing the household. Marriage solidified women’s legal dependence on their husbands, as English common law dictated that a married woman’s legal identity was subsumed by her husband’s.

Women’s religious involvement was significant yet confined to roles that aligned with their perceived moral and nurturing nature. Although barred from church leadership, women regularly attended church services, participated in prayer groups, and engaged in charitable work. Puritan ministers taught women to embody virtues such as humility and patience, which they were expected to pass on to their children. Connecticut’s religious expectations allowed women some influence within the family and as moral guides, but their public roles remained limited to private, supportive capacities.

Women's Roles in Governance (1636-1699)

Connecticut’s governance structure, shaped by Puritan values, excluded women from formal political participation. The Fundamental Orders and colonial laws concentrated power in the hands of male church members, reflecting the Puritan belief that only men possessed the judgment and authority to govern. The Connecticut General Court, comprised solely of men, made legislative decisions, leaving women no direct access to political power.

Women’s influence on governance occurred primarily through their relationships with male family members or as members of prominent families. However, this influence was indirect, as women could not vote, hold office, or participate in public decision-making. The patriarchy of the family unit extended into both church and state, reinforcing women’s subordinate role in public life. Although some women, particularly wealthy widows, managed family estates or businesses, their governance roles were restricted by both law and social expectation.

Conclusion

Between 1636 and 1699, Connecticut’s society reflected the dominant influence of Puritan religious doctrine, English settler origins, and a patriarchal social structure that enforced strict gender roles. Puritanism’s emphasis on modesty, obedience, and moral purity shaped women’s roles in the household, church, and community, defining them as secondary to men. Excluded from formal governance, women contributed to society mainly within the domestic and supportive religious sphere, their actions shaped by a deeply embedded patriarchal framework. The social and legal restrictions placed on women reveal Connecticut’s vision of a disciplined and devout society, where gendered roles were maintained to uphold both moral and social order.

Bibliography

Books

Breen, T. H. The Character of a Good Ruler: Puritan Political Ideas in New England, 1630-1730. Yale University Press, 2001.

Butler, Jon. Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People. Harvard University Press, 1990.

Dayton, Cornelia Hughes. Women before the Bar: Gender, Law, and Society in Connecticut, 1639-1789. University of North Carolina Press, 1995.

Hall, David D. Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England. Harvard University Press, 1989.

Kamensky, Jane. Governing the Tongue: The Politics of Speech in Early New England. Oxford University Press, 1997.

Morgan, Edmund S. The Puritan Family: Religion and Domestic Relations in Seventeenth-Century New England. Harper & Row, 1944.

Reis, Elizabeth. Damned Women: Sinners and Witches in Puritan New England. Cornell University Press, 1997.

Richards, Jennifer. Rethinking Puritan Gender: Law, Religion, and Ideology in Early New England. Routledge, 2020.

Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. Good Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650-1750. Alfred A. Knopf, 1982.

Winship, Michael P. Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America. Yale University Press, 2018.

Articles

Bremer, Francis J. "Puritan Law and the Enforcement of Moral Behavior in Early New England." New England Quarterly, 1985. Bremer examines Puritan moral laws and their impact on social norms in New England, focusing on how legal restrictions shaped women’s behavior in Connecticut.

Dayton, Cornelia Hughes. "Taking the Trade: Abortion and Gender Relations in an Eighteenth-Century New England Village." William and Mary Quarterly, 1991. Dayton’s study of gendered moral standards highlights how societal attitudes toward women’s sexuality and autonomy were regulated in Connecticut’s early legal framework.

Foster, Thomas. "Deficient Husbands: Manhood, Sexuality, and Domestic Relations in Seventeenth-Century New England." William and Mary Quarterly, 2002. Foster explores how gender expectations influenced men’s and women’s roles, with a focus on marriage and household dynamics within Connecticut’s Puritan society.

Godbeer, Richard. "Public Indecency and Private Misbehavior: Puritanism and Adultery in Early New England." American Journal of Legal History, 1990. Godbeer discusses adultery laws and their social implications, analyzing how women bore the brunt of social stigma in Puritan Connecticut.

Hall, David D. "The Antinomian Controversy and the Construction of Puritan Women’s Roles." Journal of American History, 1971. Hall reviews how the Antinomian Controversy reflected Puritan beliefs on women’s roles, authority, and moral order in New England communities, particularly Connecticut.

Karlsen, Carol F. "The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft and Women’s Power in Colonial New England." Journal of Social History, 1987. Karlsen analyzes witchcraft accusations, focusing on how women’s perceived independence threatened Puritan social order in New England, especially Connecticut.

Norton, Mary Beth. "Gender and Defamation in Seventeenth-Century New England: The Case of Ann Hibbens." New England Quarterly, 1980. Norton discusses cases of defamation and slander, showing how colonial courts in New England, including Connecticut, managed women’s speech and upheld male authority.

Pestana, Carla Gardina. "The Law and Women’s Work in Early New England." American Journal of Legal History, 1989. Pestana’s work focuses on women’s legal limitations in business and property, highlighting cases where widows in Connecticut gained some economic independence.

Reis, Elizabeth. "Puritan Daughters and 'the Discipline of the Church': Social Control and Female Identity in Seventeenth-Century New England." William and Mary Quarterly, 1990. Reis explores how Puritanism influenced laws governing women’s behavior, highlighting the social controls that reinforced women’s roles in Connecticut.

Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. "Vertuous Women Found: New England Ministerial Literature, 1668-1735." American Quarterly, 1976. Ulrich analyzes New England ministerial literature that shaped legal practices, emphasizing how sermons promoted women’s submission and influenced Connecticut’s laws.

Woodward, William W. "Slander, Scandal, and Reputation in Early Connecticut." New England Law Review, 1994. Woodward examines Connecticut’s cases of slander, highlighting the legal consequences for women who engaged in disruptive speech or questioned male authority.

Zanger, Jules. "Morality and Law in Puritan New England: The Case of Mary Johnson." Historical Journal of Massachusetts, 1985. Zanger details the case of Mary Johnson, illustrating how Puritan legal systems in Connecticut responded to women’s perceived immoral acts and enforced social conformity.

1633-1699: Women, Religion, & Society in the Maryland Colony

St. Cecilia's Catholic Church in St. Mary's City    In 1634, the ships the Ark & the Dove landed on the shores of Maryland carrying more than 100 English Catholics & Protestants, led by the Catholic Leonard Calvert (1606-1647). Peter Friesen, director of education at the St. Mary's living history museum tells the story. The newcomers settled in a fort & gradually built a town they called St. Mary’s City.  

That 1st group of colonists included Jesuit Fathers Andrew White (1579-1656) & John Altham  (1589-1640). Archaeologists tell us that at first, they used an old witchott, a type of Native American dwelling, to celebrate Mass, then a wooden chapel, then a cruciform brick chapel with windows & a stone floor. But the building survived for only a few decades. The foundation of the original brick chapel was discovered in 1938, & more than 50 years later was excavated by archaeologists. The rebuilt chapel, called St. Cecilia's Church, was in the style of other Jesuit churches of the early colonial era.

In the late 1680s, England’s Glorious Revolution replaced a Catholic ruler with the staunchly Protestant cousins King William (1650-1702) & Queen Mary (1662-1694). Soon, Maryland was no longer controlled by the Catholic Calvert family but instead became a royal colony where the Church of England was the state religion. In 1695, Francis Nicholson, (1655–1728) the royal governor, moved the capital to Annapolis.

In 1704, the Maryland legislature passed the “Act to Prevent the Growth of Popery,” which banned Catholics from voting or holding office; taxed them twice; & only allowed them to worship in their homes. The St. Mary’s City sheriff locked the old brick chapel, so that it could no longer be used for worship. Then the Jesuits took the chapel apart brick by brick & used the bricks to rebuild a different chapel on private property, that they owned at St. Inigoes, which is 5 to 6 miles south of St. Mary’s City & is now part of a military base. To replace the loss of churches, in the early 1700s, Catholics began to add “Mass rooms” to their homes.  But in less than100 years, the 1st Amendment of the Constitution of The United States of America enshrined freedom of religion as a fundamental American right. 

See: Mairist, Zoey. "Unearthing Maryland’s Catholic past at St. Mary’s City." The Arlington Catholic Hrrald. March 22, 2022.

Religion and Society in the Maryland Colony

 An Examination of Religious Influence, Settler Origins, and Women's Roles

Introduction

In 1633, the Catholic Calvert family, led by Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, founded the Maryland Colony. Maryland stood out among the English colonies as a haven for English Catholics. However, religious dynamics in Maryland evolved significantly between 1632 and 1699, with the colony becoming home to a diverse array of Christian denominations. This essay examines the dominant religions in Maryland during this period, the origins and motivations of its settlers, the expectations placed on women by these religious frameworks, and the roles women held in governance.

Dominant Religions in Maryland (1632-1699)

Maryland, originally established as a refuge for Catholics, transformed into a religiously diverse colony over the course of the 17th century. Roman Catholicism dominated the colony from 1633 to the late 17th century, reflecting the Calverts’ Catholic faith and their desire to create a sanctuary for Catholics in the New World. However, the influx of Protestant settlers, particularly Anglicans and Puritans, dramatically changed Maryland’s religious landscape and led to tensions over religious control.

Catholics in Maryland practiced their faith privately, often in chapels attached to manorial estates, due to the colony’s religious pluralism and the growing dominance of Protestantism. Meanwhile, the Protestant population, which included Anglicans, Puritans, and Quakers, expanded rapidly. Anglicans, following the Church of England, emphasized the sacraments and the use of the Book of Common Prayer. Puritans sought to “purify” the Church of England, adhering to a strict interpretation of the Bible. Quakers, known for their pacifism and belief in the "Inner Light," practiced a form of Christianity that rejected formal clergy and sacraments. Religious tensions culminated in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, after which the Anglican Church became the official religion of Maryland in 1692, effectively marginalizing Catholics.

Origins of the Settlers

Most of Maryland’s early settlers were English Catholics, primarily from wealthy or gentry families who sought to escape religious persecution in Protestant England. Lord Baltimore envisioned Maryland as a place where Catholics could practice their faith freely and where religious tolerance would be the law of the land. To attract settlers and ensure the colony's economic viability, the Calverts also welcomed Protestant settlers, offering generous land grants.

By the 1640s, Protestant settlers outnumbered Catholics, leading to political and religious conflicts. Puritans clashed with the Catholic leadership, briefly overthrowing the proprietary government in 1654 during the English Civil War. After the Glorious Revolution, Protestant control solidified, and Catholics faced increased restrictions.

Religious Expectations of Women (1632-1699)

Religious expectations for women in Maryland varied depending on their religious affiliation, but certain overarching themes were consistent across the colony. Religious authorities expected women to conform to patriarchal norms, emphasizing their roles as wives, mothers, and caretakers of the household.

In the Catholic tradition, women were expected to be pious, modest, and obedient to male authority. The Church promoted the Virgin Mary as the ideal model for women, emphasizing values of purity, motherhood, and self-sacrifice. Catholic women in Maryland participated in religious life through private devotions, such as praying the Rosary, and through charitable works. Despite their spiritual importance, the Church excluded Catholic women from formal leadership roles, reserving those positions for male clergy.

Protestant denominations in Maryland, particularly Anglicans and Puritans, also reinforced traditional gender roles. They expected women to manage the household, raise children in the faith, and support their husbands. Protestant theology, especially Puritanism, emphasized a woman’s role in ensuring the moral and spiritual health of her family. Like their Catholic counterparts, Protestant women were largely confined to the domestic sphere and had limited public religious roles, although Quaker women had more opportunities for active participation in their religious communities due to the sect’s more egalitarian beliefs.

Women's Roles in Governance (1632-1699)

In the Maryland Colony, women did not hold formal roles in governance, reflecting the broader patriarchal structure of the time. Both Catholic and Protestant leadership dominated the political landscape, excluding women from voting, holding office, or participating in formal political processes.

However, the proprietary government allowed for some social mobility and economic participation, occasionally affording women influence, particularly in legal and business matters. For example, wealthy widows who inherited land or businesses could exercise economic power, though their influence in governance remained indirect. The legal doctrine of coverture, which subsumed a married woman’s legal identity under her husband’s, further limited women’s formal roles in society.

Catholic women sometimes exerted influence through their connections to powerful Catholic families, but these instances were exceptions rather than the rule. Overall, society expected women in Maryland to focus on their domestic duties, with their public roles restricted by both religious and social norms.

Conclusion

Between 1632 and 1699, the Maryland Colony evolved from a haven for Catholics into a religiously diverse and conflict-ridden society. Roman Catholicism initially dominated the colony, but Protestantism, particularly Anglicanism, gained ascendancy by the end of the 17th century. Maryland’s settlers, primarily from England, sought religious freedom, economic opportunity, and land. Religious expectations for women reinforced traditional gender roles, confining them to the domestic sphere and limiting their public and political participation. As a result, women held no formal role in governance, with political and religious power concentrated in the hands of men. The intersection of religion, gender, and governance in Maryland reveals the colony’s complex social dynamics and the shifting religious landscape of the 17th century.

Bibliography

Books:

Browne, William Hand. George Calvert and Cecilius Calvert, Barons Baltimore of Baltimore: A Sketch of Colonial Times. Dodd, Mead, and Company, 1890.

Brodsky, Alyn. Benjamin Franklin: A Man of Many Talents. Truman Talley Books, 2004.

Brugger, Robert J. Maryland: A Middle Temperament, 1634-1980. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.

Horn, James. Adapting to a New World: English Society in the Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake. University of North Carolina Press, 1994.

Krugler, John D. English and Catholic: The Lords Baltimore in the Seventeenth Century. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.

Articles:

Brennan, Richard P. "Maryland’s Religious Toleration Act of 1649: A Legislative Analysis." The Maryland Historical Magazine, vol. 75, no. 4, 1980, pp. 420-439.

Carr, Lois Green. "The Metropolis of Maryland: A Study of Urban Growth and Development in the Colonial Chesapeake." The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 3, 1964, pp. 199-224.

Hardy, Beatriz Betancourt. “Papists in a Protestant Age: The Catholic Gentry and Community in Colonial Maryland, 1689-1776.” The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 4, 1999, pp. 723-748.

Hall, David D. "Lived Religion in America: Toward a History of Practice." American Quarterly, vol. 43, no. 3, 1991, pp. 455-478.

Menard, Russell R. "From Servant to Freeholder: Status Mobility and Property Accumulation in Seventeenth-Century Maryland." The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 1, 1973, pp. 37-64.

Riordan, Timothy B. "The Plundering Time: Maryland’s First Civil War, 1645-1647." Maryland Historical Magazine, vol. 94, no. 2, 1999, pp. 133-163.

Rushforth, Brett. "Slavery, the Fox Wars, and the Limits of Alliance." The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 63, no. 1, 2006, pp. 53-80.

Walsh, Lorena S. "Servitude and Opportunity in Colonial Maryland." Agricultural History, vol. 52, no. 2, 1978, pp. 335-350.

Books & Articles on Geneal Maryland Early History

Andrews, William. Punishments in Olden Times. London: W. Stewart and Co., 1881. 

Babcock, Jason. “Witch or not, Moll Dyer legend lives on.”  SoMdNews.Com,  

Baldwin, Jane, ed. Maryland Calendar of Wills, Volume 1. Baltimore, MD: Geneological Publishing Company, 1968. 

Barth, John. The Sot-Weed Factor. New York, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1987. 

Beattie, J.M. Crime and the Courts in England, 1660-1800. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986. 

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Blanton, Wyndham. Medicine in Virginia in the Seventeenth Century. New York, N.Y.: Arno Press, 1972.

Bleek, Wolf. “Witchcraft, Gossip, and Death: A Social Drama.” Man New Series, Vol. 11, No. 4 (December 1976): 526-541. 

Blok, Anton. Honour and Violence. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2001. 

Bodkin, Ronald G. “The Issue of Female Agency in Classical Economic Thought: Jane Marcet, Harriet Martineau, and the Men.” Gender Issues Vol. 17, No. 4 (September 22, 1999): 62-73. 

Breen, T.H. Puritans and Adventurers: Change and Persistence in Early America. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 1980. 

Brock, Helen and Catherine Crawford. “Forensic Medicine in Early Colonial Maryland, 1633-1683.” In Legal Medicine in History, ed. Michael Clark and Catherine Crawford, 25-44. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 1994. 

Brown, Kathleen. Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial America. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1996. 

—. “Gender and the Genesis of a Race and Class System in Virginia.” Ph.D., diss. University of Wisconsin, 1990. 

Brugger, Robert J. Maryland: A Middle Temperament, 1634-1980. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. 

Burgess, Maureen Rush. “The Cup of Ruin and Desolation: Seventeenth-Century Witchcraft in the Chesapeake.” Ph.D. diss., University of Hawaii, 2004. 

Carlson, Marc. “Historical Witches and Witchtrials in North America.” 2004. 

Carr, Lois Green. “Margaret Brent.” Archives of Maryland, (Biographical Series) MSA SC 3520-2177, 

Carr, Lois Green, Russell R. Menard, and Lorena Walsh. Robert Cole’s World: Agriculture and Society in Early Maryland. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1991. 

Carr, Lois Green and Lorena Walsh. “The Planter’s Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Mary

Cartwright, Frederick F. A Social History of Medicine. New York, N.Y.: Longman Inc., 1977. 

Chaffee, Zachariah. “Colonial Courts and the Common Law.” In Essays in the History of Early American Law ed. David Flaherty, 53-82. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1969.

Chandler, J.A.C. and T.B. Thames, Colonial Virginia. Richmond, VA: Times-Dispatch Co., 1907.

 Chapin, Bradley. Criminal Justice in Colonial America. Athens, GA: The University of Georgia Press, 1983. 

Çinlar, Nuran. “‘Came Mistress Margaret Brent’: Political Representation, Power, and Authority in Early Maryland.” Maryland Historical Magazine (Winter 2004): 405-427. 

Clerks, Pat M. “The Judicial System of . . .” Archives of Maryland Online SpecialCollections. 

Cody, Lisa Forman. Birthing the Nation: Sex, Science and the Conception of Eighteenth Century Britons. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 2005. 

Cohen, Julie A. The Reconstruction of Women: Gender and Law in the Age of Revolution. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020.

Crane, Elaine Forman. Killed Strangely: The Death of Rebecca Cornell. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002. 

Daniels, Christine. “Liberty to Complain: Servant Petitions in Maryland, 1652-1797.” In The Many Legalities of Early America ed. Christopher L. Tomlins and Bruce H. Mann, 219-249. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 2001. 

Dayton, Cornelia Hughes. Women before the Bar: Gender, Law, and Society in Connecticut, 1639-1789. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1995. 

—. “Rethinking Agency, Recovering Voices,” The American Historical Review, Vol. 109, No. 3 (June 2004): 827-843. 

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—. “Turning Points and the Relevance of Colonial Legal History.” The William and Mary Quarterly 3rd Series Vol. 1, No. 1 (January 1993): 7-17. 

Demos, John. The Unredeemed Captive: A Family Story from Early America. New York, N.Y.: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994. 

Dishneau, David. “Witchcraft trials are part of Md., Va. History.” October 10, 2004. \

Dubois-Nayt, Armel. “Women Thieves in Early Modern England: What Can We Le

Earle, Carville V. “Environment, Disease, and Mortality in Early America.” In The Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century: Essays on Anglo-American Society, ed. Thad Tate and David L. Ammerman, 96-125. New York, N.Y.: W.W. Norton, 1979. 

Earnshaw, Pat. Lace in Fashion: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. Guildford, England: Gorse Publications, 1985. 

Ellefson, C. Ashley, William Bladen of Annapolis, 1673?-1718: "the most capable in all Respects" or "Blockhead Booby"? 2007. Volume 747. Archives of Maryland Online. Evans, Sara M. Born for Liberty: 

Falb, Susan R. “Advice and Ascent: The Development of the Maryland Assembly, 1635- 1689.” Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 1976.

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Hoffer, Peter Charles and N.E.H. Hull. Murdering Mothers: Infanticide in England and New England, 1558-1803. New York, N.Y.: New York University Press, 1981. 

Horn, James. Adapting to a New World: English Society in the Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1994. 

Horsley, Richard A. “Who Were the Witches? The Social Roles of the Accused in the European Witch Trials.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 9 (Spring, 1979): 689-715. 

Jordan, David W. “Maryland’s Privy Council, 1637-1715.” In Law, Society, and Politics in Early Maryland, ed. Aubrey Land, Lois Green Carr, and Edward Papenfuse, 65-87. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974. 

Juster, Susan. “Sinners and Saints: Women and Religion in Colonial American.” In A Companion to American Women’s History ed. Nancy Hewitt, 66-80. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2002. 

Kamensky, Jane. Governing the Tongue: The Politics of Speech in Early New England. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 1997. 

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Karlsen, Carol. The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England. New York, N.Y.: W.W. Norton and Co., 1987. 

Kerrison, Catherine. Claiming the Pen: Women and Intellectual Life in the Early American South. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2006.

Kierner, Cynthia. Beyond the Household: Women’s Place in the South, 1700-1835. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998. 

—. “Review of Claiming the Pen: Women and Intellectual Life in the Early American South by Catherine Kerrison.” The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 63, No. 4 (October 2006): 853-856.

 —. “Women, Gender, Families, and Households in the Southern Colonies.” The Journal of Southern History. Vol. 73, No. 3 (August 2007): 643-658. 

Kittredge, George Lyman. Witchcraft in Old and New England. New York, N.Y.: Russell and Russell, 1958. 

Koehler, Lyle. A Search for Power: The “Weaker Sex” in Seventeenth-Century New England. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1980. 

Krugler, John D. English and Catholic: The Lords Baltimore in the Seventeenth Century. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. 

Land, Aubrey. Colonial Maryland: A History. Millwood, N.Y.: KTO Press, 1981. Lane, Roger. Murder

Laurence, Anne. Women in England, 1500-1760: A Social History. New York, N.Y.: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. 

Lentz, Susan A. “Without Peers: A History of Women and Trial by Jury Part One – From the Women’s Sphere to Suffrage.” In Women & Criminal Justice Vol. 11 No. 3 (2000): 83-106. 

Levack, Brian. The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe, Third Edition. New York, N.Y.: Pearson Education Limited, 2006. 

Linebaugh, Peter and Marcus Rediker. The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2000. 

Lockridge, Kenneth. Literacy in Colonial New England: An Enquiry into the Social Contex

Love, Philip. “Witch of St. Mary’s Moll Dyer Lives on in Legend – and a Rock.” Baltimore Sun supplement (October 20, 1974): 24-26. 

Lovejoy, David. “Satanizing the American Indian.” New England Quarterly 67 (December 1994): 603-621. 

Macfarlane, Alan. Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England: A Regional and Comparative Study. New York, N.Y.: Harper and Row, 1970. 

Main, Gloria. Tobacco Colony: Life in Early Maryland, 1650-1720. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982. 

Maloney, Eric. “Papists and Puritans in Early Maryland: Religion in the Forging of Provincial Society, 1632-1665.” Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1996. 

Marietta, Jack D. and G.S. Rowe. Troubled Experiment: Crime and Justice in Pennsylvania, 1682-1800. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006. 

Marck, John T. “Margaret Brent: America’s First Feminist.” About Famous People, http://www.aboutfamouspeople.com/article1014.html. Maryland State Archives. Guide to Government Records. “Agency History for Provincial Court.” http://guide.mdarchives.state.md.us/history.cfm?ID=SH5. McWilliams, John. “Indian John and the Northern Tawnies.” New England Quarterly 69 (1996): 580-605. 

Menard, Russell R. “British Migration to the Chesapeake Colonies in the Seventeenth Century.” In Colonial Chesapeake Society, ed. Lois Green Carr, Philip D. Morgan, and Jean B. Russo, 99-132. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1988

. —. “Early American Family and Legal History: New Idea

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 —. “Maryland’s ‘Time of Troubles’: Sources of Political Disorder in Early St. Mary’s.” Maryland Historical Magazine Vol. 76, No. 2 (Summer 1982): 124-140.

 —. “Population, Economy, and Society in Seventeenth-Century Maryland.” Maryland Historical Magazine, 79 (Spring 1984): 71-92. 

Meyers, Debra. Common Whores, Vertuous Women, and Loveing Wives: Free Will Christian Women in Colonial Maryland. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2003. 

Miller, Henry M. “An Archaeological Perspective on Diet in the Colonial Chesapeake, 1620-1745.” In Colonial Chesapeake Society, ed. Lois Green Carr, Philip D. Morgan, and Jean B. Russo, 176-199. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press, 1988. 

Miracle, Amanda Lea. “Rape and Infanticide in Maryland, 1634-1689: Gender and Class in the Courtroom Contestation of Patriarchy on the Edge of the English Atlantic. Ph.D. diss., Bowling Green State University, 2008. 

Moogk, Peter N. “‘Thieving Buggers’ and Stupid Sluts’: Insults and Popular Culture in New France. The William and Mary Quarterly 3rd Series, Vol. 36, No. 4 (October 1979): 524-547. 

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General - Women in America Timeline 1607-1620

Timeline Of Events Directly Affecting Women

England became a colonial power in the 1580s, after setting up a colony at Roanoke in the present-day state of North Carolina, establishing it to rival Spanish control of the New World. The Anglo-Spanish War of the 1580s-1600s raged violently, as English privateers such as Francis Drake, John Hawkins, & Martin Frobisher raided Spanish shipping. Although the Roanoke colony failed, in 1607 the English set up the Jamestown colony in Virginia, & the Plymouth colony in Massachusetts in 1622. English expansion in the New World gave them most of the Atlantic coast of colonial North America.

Copies of complete documents may be found by clicking on highlighted descriptions.

1606
The First Charter of Virginia; April 10 Here

1607
Virginia. The British establish their first American colony at Jamestown named for King James I, who ascended to the throne only four years earlier. Virginia was named for the virgin Queen Elizabeth, who never married. England was financially pressed following years of war with Spain. To raise funds to explore the New World, to bring back gold and other riches, and to seek the Northwest Passage to the Middle East and India, James I grants a proprietary charter for the Chesapeake region to two competing branches of the Virginia Company, which were supported by private investors--the Plymouth Company and the London Company. Of the original 105 settlers, only 32 survived the first year.

1607 
Cape Henry, Virginia, 1st Anglican (Episcopal) church in the American colonies was established.
as yhe Protestant Episcopal parish was established in Jamestown, Virginia.

1608
First English women arrive at Jamestown contributing to Jamestown's ultimate survival. Lord Bacon, a member of His Majesty's Council for Virginia, stated about 1620 that "When a plantation grows to strength, then it is time to plant with women as well as with men; that the plantation may spread into generations, and not be ever pieced from without."

Anne Burras came to Jamestown in 1608 married John Laydon three months after her arrival becoming the first Jamestown wedding. Anne and John raised four daughters in the new Virginia wilderness.

John Smith (1580-1631) claims (some 24 years later & 7 years after her death) that Pocahontas saves him from execution by Algonquian Chief Powhatan who was her faher.

1609
The Dutch East India Company sends Henry Hudson on a seven month voyage to explore the area around present-day New York City and the river north to Albany, which bears his name. The Dutch claimed the land.

Temperance Flowerdew, arrived at Jamestown with 400 ill-fated settlers in the fall of 1609. The following winter, dubbed the "Starving Time," saw over 80 percent of Jamestown succumb to sickness, disease and starvation. Temperance survived but soon returned to England. By 1619, Temperance returned to Jamestown with her new husband, Governor George Yeardley. After his death in 1627, she married Governor Francis West and remained in Virginia until her death in 1628.

The Second Charter of Virginia; May 23

1609-1612
Tobacco cultivation is introduced in Virginia and within a decade becomes the colony's chief source of revenue.

1611
Authorized version of King James Bible published

The Third Charter of Virginia; March 12 Here

1613
Pocahontas is taken hostage by Jamestown colonists in the first Anglo-Powhatan war.
A Dutch trading post is set up on lower Manhattan island.

1614
Pocahontas is baptized a Christian and marries John Rolfe, one of the Jamestown colonists.

General Charter for Those who Discover Any New Passages, Havens, Countries, or Places; March 27 Here

Grant of Exclusive Trade to New Netherland by the States-General of the United Netherlands; October 11 Here

1616
Pocahontas and John Rolfe departed for England, where she met King James I. Pocahontas and Rolfe were awarded funds to return to the colony to establish a college to Christianize the Powhatan Indians, but on beginning the trip home she died unexpectedly, in March 1617, at Gravesend, England, where she is buried.

John Smith writes A Description of New England.

1619
Virginia settlers were first granted their own personal property, the acreage dependent on the time and situation of their arrival. This was the beginning of private property for Virginia men. The men, however, asked that land also be allotted for their wives who were just as deserving "...because that in a newe plantation it is not knowen whether man or woman be the most necessary." The Virginia Company of London hoped to anchor their discontented bachelors to the soil of Virginia by using women as a stabilizing factor. They ordered that "...a fit hundredth might be sent of women, maids young and uncorrupt, to make wives to the inhabitants and by that means to make the men there more settled and less movable...." Ninety arrived in 1620 and the company records reported in May of 1622 that, "57 young maids have been sent to make wives for the planters, divers of which were well married before the coming away of the ships."

The first session of the first legislative assembly in America occurs as the Virginia House of Burgesses convenes in Jamestown. It consists of 22 burgesses, all men, representing 11 plantations.

Twenty Africans, 17 men & 3 women, are brought by a Dutch ship to Jamestown for sale as indentured servants, marking the beginning of slavery in Colonial America.

Petition for a Charter of New England by the Northern Company of Adventurers; March 3 Here

July 22, 1620
Under John Robinson, English Separatists began to emigrate to North America - eventually, they came to be known as the Pilgrims.

September 16, 1620

The Mayflower left Plymouth, England with 102 Pilgrims aboard. The ship arrived at Provincetown on November 21st & at Plymouth on December 26th.

1620
Massachusetts. A group of 101 Puritan Separatists frustrated in their attempts to achieve reform within the Church of England sail on board the Mayflower to America and establish Plymouth Colony on Cape Cod in New England. When 41 men from the group set up the the Mayflower Compact establishing a form of local government in which the colonists agree to abide by majority rule and to cooperate for the general good of the colony, later colonies us it as a model as they set up governments. Plymouth was absorbed by Massachusetts Bay Colony with the issuance of the Massachusetts Bay charter of 1691.

Charter of New England; November 3 Here

Mayflower Compact; November 11 Here

The first public library in the colonies is organized in Virginia with books donated by landowners

See:
Yale Law School, The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History, and Diplomacy. New Haven, CT.

Burt, Daniel S., editor. THE CHRONOLOGY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE: AMERICA'S LITERARY ACHIEVEMENTS FROM THE COLONIAL ERA TO MODERN TIMES. Houghton Mifflin Internet.

HISTORY MATTERS. American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning (Graduate Center, CUNY) and the Center for History and New Media (George Mason University). Internet.

The Lost Colony & 16C Awareness of Potential Medicinal & Profit Possibilities of New World Plants like Sassafras

Probably the first ever illustration of Sassafras albidum - in Historia medicinal (1574).  Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales ("Medical study of the products imported from our West Indian possessions") is the standard title for the survey by Nicolás Monardes (1493–1588), Spanish physician & botanist. It appeared in successive editions under varying titles, gradually enlarged, in 1565, 1569 & 1574, followed by an unchanged reprint in 1580.

In 1552, during the early years of Spanish rule of "New Spain" (which covered Mexico, Central America, much of the Southwestern & Central United States, the Spanish West Indies & Spanish Florida) two Native American students at the College of Santa Cruz in Tlaltilulco, a physician Martinus de la Cruz & Juannes Badianus, compiled a list of herbs that had been used as medicines for centuries by the native populations. Martinus wrote, & probably illustrated, the original Aztec text, & Badianus translated the work into Latin. Today their work, Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis which is Latin for “Little Book of the Medicinal Herbs of the Indians” is commonly called the Badianus Manuscript. Presently housed in the Vatican Library, The Badianus Manuscript is the oldest known American herbal.

The Badianus Manuscript of 1552 is the first illustrated & descriptive scientific text illustrating sassafras as a component of Nahua medicine & botany produced in the Americas. The original text was produced in Nahuatl & translated to Latin for European readers.

It is a significant text in the history of botany & the history of medicine. Badianus Codex was written in Nhuatl by the Aztec physician Martinus de la Cruz, translated by Juannes Badianus (latin), presented to the son of the first Viceroy of New Spain in 1552.  The manuscript was compiled 1552 by a young Aztec doctor, Martin de la Cruz “taught by no formal reasonings, but educated by experiments only” & describes a number of ailments suffered by the native people, together with recommended treatments.

This was the oldest known herbal which originated from the Americas.  The indigenous populations of the Americas had already developed very considerable botanical & medical knowledge by the time they were 'discovered' by Europeans. The native peoples of North & South America also used medicinal herbs. Over thousands of years, the people of North & South Americans accumulated a vast store of botanical & medical knowledge, a fact that surprised many European explorers when they began their conquest of the Americas in the 16C.