1633-1699: Women, Religion, & Society in the Maryland Colony

St. Cecilia's Catholic Church in St. Mary's City    In 1634, the ships the Ark & the Dove landed on the shores of Maryland carrying more than 100 English Catholics & Protestants, led by the Catholic Leonard Calvert (1606-1647). Peter Friesen, director of education at the St. Mary's living history museum tells the story. The newcomers settled in a fort & gradually built a town they called St. Mary’s City.  

That 1st group of colonists included Jesuit Fathers Andrew White (1579-1656) & John Altham  (1589-1640). Archaeologists tell us that at first, they used an old witchott, a type of Native American dwelling, to celebrate Mass, then a wooden chapel, then a cruciform brick chapel with windows & a stone floor. But the building survived for only a few decades. The foundation of the original brick chapel was discovered in 1938, & more than 50 years later was excavated by archaeologists. The rebuilt chapel, called St. Cecilia's Church, was in the style of other Jesuit churches of the early colonial era.

In the late 1680s, England’s Glorious Revolution replaced a Catholic ruler with the staunchly Protestant cousins King William (1650-1702) & Queen Mary (1662-1694). Soon, Maryland was no longer controlled by the Catholic Calvert family but instead became a royal colony where the Church of England was the state religion. In 1695, Francis Nicholson, (1655–1728) the royal governor, moved the capital to Annapolis.

In 1704, the Maryland legislature passed the “Act to Prevent the Growth of Popery,” which banned Catholics from voting or holding office; taxed them twice; & only allowed them to worship in their homes. The St. Mary’s City sheriff locked the old brick chapel, so that it could no longer be used for worship. Then the Jesuits took the chapel apart brick by brick & used the bricks to rebuild a different chapel on private property, that they owned at St. Inigoes, which is 5 to 6 miles south of St. Mary’s City & is now part of a military base. To replace the loss of churches, in the early 1700s, Catholics began to add “Mass rooms” to their homes.  But in less than100 years, the 1st Amendment of the Constitution of The United States of America enshrined freedom of religion as a fundamental American right. 

See: Mairist, Zoey. "Unearthing Maryland’s Catholic past at St. Mary’s City." The Arlington Catholic Hrrald. March 22, 2022.

Religion and Society in the Maryland Colony

 An Examination of Religious Influence, Settler Origins, and Women's Roles

Introduction

In 1633, the Catholic Calvert family, led by Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, founded the Maryland Colony. Maryland stood out among the English colonies as a haven for English Catholics. However, religious dynamics in Maryland evolved significantly between 1632 and 1699, with the colony becoming home to a diverse array of Christian denominations. This essay examines the dominant religions in Maryland during this period, the origins and motivations of its settlers, the expectations placed on women by these religious frameworks, and the roles women held in governance.

Dominant Religions in Maryland (1632-1699)

Maryland, originally established as a refuge for Catholics, transformed into a religiously diverse colony over the course of the 17th century. Roman Catholicism dominated the colony from 1633 to the late 17th century, reflecting the Calverts’ Catholic faith and their desire to create a sanctuary for Catholics in the New World. However, the influx of Protestant settlers, particularly Anglicans and Puritans, dramatically changed Maryland’s religious landscape and led to tensions over religious control.

Catholics in Maryland practiced their faith privately, often in chapels attached to manorial estates, due to the colony’s religious pluralism and the growing dominance of Protestantism. Meanwhile, the Protestant population, which included Anglicans, Puritans, and Quakers, expanded rapidly. Anglicans, following the Church of England, emphasized the sacraments and the use of the Book of Common Prayer. Puritans sought to “purify” the Church of England, adhering to a strict interpretation of the Bible. Quakers, known for their pacifism and belief in the "Inner Light," practiced a form of Christianity that rejected formal clergy and sacraments. Religious tensions culminated in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, after which the Anglican Church became the official religion of Maryland in 1692, effectively marginalizing Catholics.

Origins of the Settlers

Most of Maryland’s early settlers were English Catholics, primarily from wealthy or gentry families who sought to escape religious persecution in Protestant England. Lord Baltimore envisioned Maryland as a place where Catholics could practice their faith freely and where religious tolerance would be the law of the land. To attract settlers and ensure the colony's economic viability, the Calverts also welcomed Protestant settlers, offering generous land grants.

By the 1640s, Protestant settlers outnumbered Catholics, leading to political and religious conflicts. Puritans clashed with the Catholic leadership, briefly overthrowing the proprietary government in 1654 during the English Civil War. After the Glorious Revolution, Protestant control solidified, and Catholics faced increased restrictions.

Religious Expectations of Women (1632-1699)

Religious expectations for women in Maryland varied depending on their religious affiliation, but certain overarching themes were consistent across the colony. Religious authorities expected women to conform to patriarchal norms, emphasizing their roles as wives, mothers, and caretakers of the household.

In the Catholic tradition, women were expected to be pious, modest, and obedient to male authority. The Church promoted the Virgin Mary as the ideal model for women, emphasizing values of purity, motherhood, and self-sacrifice. Catholic women in Maryland participated in religious life through private devotions, such as praying the Rosary, and through charitable works. Despite their spiritual importance, the Church excluded Catholic women from formal leadership roles, reserving those positions for male clergy.

Protestant denominations in Maryland, particularly Anglicans and Puritans, also reinforced traditional gender roles. They expected women to manage the household, raise children in the faith, and support their husbands. Protestant theology, especially Puritanism, emphasized a woman’s role in ensuring the moral and spiritual health of her family. Like their Catholic counterparts, Protestant women were largely confined to the domestic sphere and had limited public religious roles, although Quaker women had more opportunities for active participation in their religious communities due to the sect’s more egalitarian beliefs.

Women's Roles in Governance (1632-1699)

In the Maryland Colony, women did not hold formal roles in governance, reflecting the broader patriarchal structure of the time. Both Catholic and Protestant leadership dominated the political landscape, excluding women from voting, holding office, or participating in formal political processes.

However, the proprietary government allowed for some social mobility and economic participation, occasionally affording women influence, particularly in legal and business matters. For example, wealthy widows who inherited land or businesses could exercise economic power, though their influence in governance remained indirect. The legal doctrine of coverture, which subsumed a married woman’s legal identity under her husband’s, further limited women’s formal roles in society.

Catholic women sometimes exerted influence through their connections to powerful Catholic families, but these instances were exceptions rather than the rule. Overall, society expected women in Maryland to focus on their domestic duties, with their public roles restricted by both religious and social norms.

Conclusion

Between 1632 and 1699, the Maryland Colony evolved from a haven for Catholics into a religiously diverse and conflict-ridden society. Roman Catholicism initially dominated the colony, but Protestantism, particularly Anglicanism, gained ascendancy by the end of the 17th century. Maryland’s settlers, primarily from England, sought religious freedom, economic opportunity, and land. Religious expectations for women reinforced traditional gender roles, confining them to the domestic sphere and limiting their public and political participation. As a result, women held no formal role in governance, with political and religious power concentrated in the hands of men. The intersection of religion, gender, and governance in Maryland reveals the colony’s complex social dynamics and the shifting religious landscape of the 17th century.

Bibliography

Books:

Browne, William Hand. George Calvert and Cecilius Calvert, Barons Baltimore of Baltimore: A Sketch of Colonial Times. Dodd, Mead, and Company, 1890.

Brodsky, Alyn. Benjamin Franklin: A Man of Many Talents. Truman Talley Books, 2004.

Brugger, Robert J. Maryland: A Middle Temperament, 1634-1980. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.

Horn, James. Adapting to a New World: English Society in the Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake. University of North Carolina Press, 1994.

Krugler, John D. English and Catholic: The Lords Baltimore in the Seventeenth Century. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.

Articles:

Brennan, Richard P. "Maryland’s Religious Toleration Act of 1649: A Legislative Analysis." The Maryland Historical Magazine, vol. 75, no. 4, 1980, pp. 420-439.

Carr, Lois Green. "The Metropolis of Maryland: A Study of Urban Growth and Development in the Colonial Chesapeake." The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 3, 1964, pp. 199-224.

Hardy, Beatriz Betancourt. “Papists in a Protestant Age: The Catholic Gentry and Community in Colonial Maryland, 1689-1776.” The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 4, 1999, pp. 723-748.

Hall, David D. "Lived Religion in America: Toward a History of Practice." American Quarterly, vol. 43, no. 3, 1991, pp. 455-478.

Menard, Russell R. "From Servant to Freeholder: Status Mobility and Property Accumulation in Seventeenth-Century Maryland." The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 1, 1973, pp. 37-64.

Riordan, Timothy B. "The Plundering Time: Maryland’s First Civil War, 1645-1647." Maryland Historical Magazine, vol. 94, no. 2, 1999, pp. 133-163.

Rushforth, Brett. "Slavery, the Fox Wars, and the Limits of Alliance." The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 63, no. 1, 2006, pp. 53-80.

Walsh, Lorena S. "Servitude and Opportunity in Colonial Maryland." Agricultural History, vol. 52, no. 2, 1978, pp. 335-350.

1626 - 1699 Women. Religion, & Society in the New York Colony

 

Religion and Society in the New York Colony 

 An Examination of Religious Influence, Settler Origins, and Women's Roles

Introduction

The Dutch originally settled the colony of New York in 1624 as New Netherland and named the settlement New Amsterdam in 1626  Throughout the 17th century, the colony experienced significant changes, including a transfer of control to the English in 1664. These changes impacted the colony’s religious landscape, the origins and motivations of its settlers, and the roles of women within its society. Between 1626 and 1699, New York demonstrated religious diversity, reflecting its Dutch origins and the subsequent influence of English rule. This essay examines the dominant religions in New York during this period, the origins of its settlers, their reasons for migration, the expectations placed on women by the religious framework, and the roles women held in governance.

Dominant Religions in New York (1626-1699)

Religious diversity characterized New York between 1626 and 1699, largely due to the colony’s Dutch origins and its later transition to English control. During the Dutch period (1626-1664), the Dutch Reformed Church, a Calvinist denomination, dominated the religious landscape. The Dutch Reformed Church adhered to Calvinist theology, which emphasized predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the importance of a disciplined, pious life. The church played a central role in the colony’s social and political life. Although the Dutch Reformed Church was the official religion, the Dutch colonial authorities practiced a degree of religious tolerance, allowing other Protestant sects, Catholics, and Jews to live and worship in the colony.

When the English took control of New Amsterdam in 1664, renaming it New York, Anglicanism gained prominence. However, it did not achieve the same dominance as in other English colonies. The Church of England (Anglicanism) emphasized the sacraments, the authority of bishops, and the use of the Book of Common Prayer. Despite the rise of Anglicanism, religious pluralism persisted due to the colony’s diverse history and demographics. The Dutch Reformed and Anglican churches continued to coexist alongside other Protestant denominations such as Lutherans, Presbyterians, and Quakers. The Jewish community, which the Dutch originally established, continued to grow, making New York one of the most religiously diverse colonies in North America.

Origins of the Settlers

The settlers of New York between 1626 and 1699 came from various backgrounds, reflecting the colony’s origins and changing political control. The Dutch comprised the initial settlers, including traders, farmers, and artisans from the Netherlands who sought economic opportunities in the New World. The Dutch West India Company, which administered the colony, encouraged settlement to support its fur trading operations and agricultural expansion. Economic opportunities primarily motivated these settlers, though religious freedom also played a role, especially for religious minorities within the Dutch Republic.

After the English seized control in 1664, the colony’s population became more diverse. Increasing numbers of English settlers, including merchants, farmers, and craftsmen, arrived. The colony also saw a significant influx of other European immigrants, including Germans, French Huguenots (Protestants fleeing religious persecution), and Scandinavians. African slaves were also brought to New York, reflecting the growing reliance on enslaved labor in the region. New York’s strategic location as a port city and its reputation for religious tolerance attracted settlers seeking economic opportunities, religious freedom, and a fresh start in the New World.

Religious Expectations of Women (1626-1699)

Religious expectations for women in New York between 1626 and 1699 varied depending on their religious affiliation, but certain common themes emerged across the different religious communities. Generally, the colony’s religious communities expected women to conform to the patriarchal norms of the time, which emphasized their roles as wives, mothers, and homemakers. Regardless of their specific religious background, women had to be pious, obedient to their husbands, and dedicated to maintaining the moral and spiritual welfare of their households.

In the Dutch Reformed Church, religious authorities considered women spiritually equal to men but expected them to adhere to strict gender roles. Women bore responsibility for the religious education of their children and the management of the household. The Calvinist emphasis on discipline and moral rectitude extended to women, who had to lead lives of modesty and virtue.

Under English rule, the Anglican Church also reinforced traditional gender roles. Women had to support their husbands, raise their children in the Christian faith, and engage in charitable activities. Men dominated public religious life, and women’s participation remained largely confined to the domestic sphere. However, in more religiously diverse communities, such as those of the Quakers, women had slightly more opportunities for religious involvement. For example, Quaker women could speak in meetings and enjoyed spiritual equality with men, reflecting the sect’s more egalitarian beliefs.

Overall, religious expectations for women in New York reinforced their subordinate role in both the family and society, with their primary responsibilities centered on the home and family life.

Women's Roles in Governance (1626-1699)

Women in New York, like in most colonies during this period, had no formal role in governance. Both the Dutch and English colonial administrations were male-dominated, and they excluded women from voting, holding office, or participating in formal political processes. The Dutch West India Company and, later, the English Crown appointed governors and councils to administer the colony, while male landowners and merchants primarily handled local government.

During the Dutch period, women enjoyed limited legal rights. Dutch law, influenced by Roman law, granted women more property rights than English law, particularly regarding inheritance and business ownership. However, these rights did not extend to political participation. After the English took control, women’s legal rights diminished further under English common law, which emphasized coverture—the legal doctrine that subsumed a married woman’s legal identity under her husband’s.

Although women played no formal role in governance, they could exert influence through their family connections, social status, and economic activities. Wealthy widows or women involved in business could have some indirect influence, but their participation in governance remained highly limited and informal.

Conclusion

New York between 1626 and 1699 experienced religious diversity, shaped by its Dutch origins and the later influence of English rule. The dominant religions during this period included the Dutch Reformed Church and Anglicanism, alongside various other Protestant denominations, Catholics, and Jews. The settlers of New York came from diverse backgrounds, including Dutch, English, German, French, and African origins, driven by economic opportunities, religious freedom, and the colony’s strategic location.

Religious expectations for women across these communities reinforced traditional gender roles, with women focusing on domestic responsibilities and moral conduct. Despite the colony’s diversity, women had no formal role in governance, reflecting the broader patriarchal structure of the time. The intersection of religion, gender, and governance in New York highlights the complexities of colonial society and the varying degrees of influence different groups wielded during this formative period.

Bibliography

Books:

Bonomi, Patricia U. Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America. Oxford University Press, 1986.

urrows, Edwin G., and Mike Wallace. Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. Oxford University Press, 1999.

Goodfriend, Joyce D. Before the Melting Pot: Society and Culture in Colonial New York City, 1664-1730. Princeton University Press, 1992.

Jacobs, Jaap. The Colony of New Netherland: A Dutch Settlement in Seventeenth-Century America. Cornell University Press, 2009.

Murrin, John M. Rethinking America: From Empire to Republic. Oxford University Press, 2018.

Articles:

Blumin, Stuart M. "The Emergence of a New Urban Society: New York City, 1760-1825." Journal of Urban History, vol. 2, no. 1, 1975, pp. 53-77.

Cohen, David Steven. "The Dutch-American Farm." Agricultural History, vol. 59, no. 4, 1985, pp. 547-558.

Gould, Eliga H. "Entangled Histories, Entangled Worlds: The English-Speaking Atlantic as a Spanish Periphery." American Historical Review, vol. 112, no. 3, 2007, pp. 764-786.

Goodfriend, Joyce D. "Burghers and Blacks: The Evolution of a Slave Society at New Amsterdam." The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 53, no. 2, 1996, pp. 383-408.

Haefeli, Evan, and Jon Butler. "Revolution and Religion in Early America." Religion and American Culture, vol. 1, no. 2, 1991, pp. 139-168.

Snyder, Terri L. "Legal History of the Colonial Era." Journal of Women’s History, vol. 6, no. 2, 1994, pp. 124-132.

Zellers, Perry R. "New Netherland and the Dutch Origins of American Religious Liberty." Journal of Church and State, vol. 49, no. 4, 2007, pp. 703-731.

1620- 1699 Women. Religion, & Society in the Massachusetts Colony

 

Women. Religion, & Society in the Massachusetts Colony 

An Examination of Religious Influence, Settler Origins, and Women's Roles

Introduction

Modern-day Massachusetts traces its origins to the Plymouth Colony, established by the Pilgrims in 1620, and to the much larger Massachusetts Bay Colony, established by the Puritans in 1629. The Massachusetts Bay Colony quickly became a focal point for religious and social development in early New England, particularly between 1629 and 1699. Puritanism dominated the colony during this period, significantly shaping its social structure, governance, and expectations for women. This essay examines the dominant religions in Massachusetts during this time, the origins of its settlers, their motivations for coming to the New World, the expectations placed on women by the religious framework, the roles women held in governance, and the role of witchcraft beliefs in the colony.

Origins of the Settlers

English Puritans, who migrated during the Great Migration of the 1630s, made up the majority of settlers in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. These Puritans left England primarily to escape religious persecution and to practice their faith freely. They also sought to establish a community based on their religious principles, free from the perceived corruption of the Church of England. Many of these settlers came from East Anglia, a region in England where Puritanism was particularly strong. Middle-class families, including farmers, tradesmen, and merchants, composed the majority of the settlers. They believed they were entering into a covenant with God to create a "city upon a hill" in the New World, where they could live according to their strict religious values and influence the Anglican Church of England.

Dominant Religions in Massachusetts (1632-1699)

Puritanism dominated Massachusetts between 1629 and 1699. As a movement within Protestantism, Puritanism sought to "purify" the Church of England from what its followers considered corrupt practices and beliefs. The Puritans adhered to Calvinist theology, emphasizing predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the importance of a covenantal community. For the Puritans, religion was not merely a set of beliefs but a comprehensive worldview that influenced every aspect of life in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

The Puritans believed in the importance of a moral and disciplined community where the church played a central role in both spiritual and civil affairs. Each congregation was autonomous and governed by its members, with a minister as the spiritual leader. This congregational structure contrasted with the hierarchical Anglican Church.

Smaller religious groups, such as the Quakers and Baptists, also existed alongside the Puritans. However, the Puritans persecuted these groups for their beliefs. The Quakers, in particular, were known for their pacifism, belief in the "Inner Light," and opposition to the rigid social structures upheld by the Puritans. Despite their presence, Puritanism remained the overwhelmingly dominant force in the colony.

Religious Expectations of Women (1629-1699)

Puritanism profoundly influenced the roles and expectations of women in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. While Puritan theology considered women spiritual equals to men in the eyes of God, it also dictated that women remain subordinate to male authority in social and family structures. The Puritans emphasized the family as the foundation of both religious and civil life, assigning women the crucial role of maintaining the household and raising children.

The Puritans expected women to be pious, modest, and obedient to their husbands. Women bore the responsibility for the spiritual education of their children and were encouraged to read the Bible, though their public participation in religious life was limited. Women could not hold positions of authority in the church, and their involvement in public religious matters remained confined to roles aligned with their perceived nurturing nature, such as helping the poor or teaching young children. Despite these limitations, women constituted a majority of church members by the middle of the century.

Strict moral codes enforced by Puritanism dictated women's behavior. The Puritans expected women to dress modestly, avoid vanity, and adhere to the community's religious standards. Any deviation from these norms, such as expressing dissenting religious views or challenging male authority, could result in severe consequences. The cases of Anne Hutchinson and Mary Dyer, both of whom the colony persecuted for their religious beliefs, serve as stark examples.

Belief in Witches and Witchcraft

Belief in witches and witchcraft played a significant role in the religious worldview of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, especially during the late 17th century. The Puritans believed the Devil actively worked to undermine their godly society and that witches served as his agents on Earth. They based this belief on their interpretation of biblical texts and the widespread European belief in witchcraft at the time.

The Salem witch trials of 1692 represent the most extreme manifestation of these beliefs. During this period, a series of trials and executions occurred in response to accusations of witchcraft in the town of Salem and surrounding areas. The trials led to the execution of 20 people, mostly women, and the imprisonment of many others. Religious fervor, social tensions, and personal vendettas fueled the witch trials, but they fundamentally rested on the Puritan belief that the Devil could and did intervene in human affairs.

Women were particularly vulnerable to accusations of witchcraft, as the Puritans often saw them as morally weaker and more susceptible to the Devil's influence. This belief reflected broader societal views about gender, power, and authority. Women who were outspoken, independent, or deviated from expected norms were more likely to face accusations of witchcraft, as were those who were poor, widowed, or lacked male protection.

The witch trials left a lasting impact on the colony, revealing the dangers of religious extremism and the consequences of a rigid, theocratic society.

Women's Roles in Governance (1629-1699)

Women in the Massachusetts Bay Colony had no formal role in governance, reflecting the broader patriarchal structure of Puritan society. The Puritans concentrated political and religious power in the hands of men, particularly those who were full church members, known as "freemen." These freemen had the right to vote in elections, hold public office, and participate in town meetings where they made decisions about the community. Women, regardless of their social or religious standing, were excluded from these activities.

The absence of women in governance extended to the church, where only men could become ministers or serve as church elders. Although women often played active roles in their communities, their contributions were limited to informal or behind-the-scenes roles, such as advising their husbands or participating in charitable work. Women's influence in public life remained largely indirect, exercised through their relationships with men who held formal power.

Conclusion

Between 1629 and 1699, Puritanism dominated the Massachusetts Bay Colony, profoundly shaping the colony's social structure, governance, and gender roles. The Puritan settlers, primarily from England, came to the New World to escape religious persecution and establish a society based on their strict religious principles. Puritanism imposed rigid expectations on women, confining them to the domestic sphere and limiting their participation in public life. The belief in witches and witchcraft, culminating in the Salem witch trials, further illustrates the intense religious fervor and the societal pressures women faced in the colony. As a result, women held no formal role in governance, with political and religious power firmly in the hands of men. The intersection of religion, gender, and governance in early Massachusetts reveals the deep influence of Puritanism on the colony's development and the lives of its inhabitants.

Bibliography

Books:

Anderson, Virginia DeJohn. New England's Generation: The Great Migration and the Formation of Society and Culture in the Seventeenth Century. Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Boyer, Paul, and Stephen Nissenbaum. Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft. Harvard University Press, 1974.

Bremer, Francis J. The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards. University Press of New England, 1995.

Demos, John Putnam. Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England. Oxford University Press, 1982.

Hall, David D. Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England. Harvard University Press, 1990.

Karlsen, Carol F. The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England. W.W. Norton & Company, 1987.

Morgan, Edmund S. The Puritan Family: Religion & Domestic Relations in Seventeenth-Century New England. Harper & Row, 1966.

Norton, Mary Beth. In the Devil's Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692. Vintage, 2003.

Winship, Michael P. Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America. Yale University Press, 2019.

Articles:

Amussen, Susan Dwyer. "Gender, Family, and the Social Order, 1560-1725." History Workshop Journal, vol. 39, 1995, pp. 39-52.

Breslaw, Elaine G. "Tituba's Confession: The Multicultural Dimensions of the 1692 Salem Witch-Hunt." Ethnohistory, vol. 44, no. 3, 1997, pp. 535-556.

Erikson, Kai T. "Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance." American Sociological Review, vol. 35, no. 3, 1970, pp. 537-538.

Gildrie, Richard P. "Moral Reform and Community Control: The Regulation of Sexuality in Puritan Massachusetts." Journal of Social History, vol. 19, no. 2, 1985, pp. 225-245.

Godbeer, Richard. "Witchcraft in British America." History Compass, vol. 8, no. 3, 2010, pp. 208-224.

Hoffer, Peter Charles. "The Salem Witch Trials: A Legal History." The Journal of American History, vol. 90, no. 2, 2003, pp. 485-487.

Kamensky, Jane. "Governing the Tongue: The Politics of Speech in Early New England." The New England Quarterly, vol. 68, no. 3, 1995, pp. 315-332.

Reis, Elizabeth. "The Devil, the Body, and the Feminine Soul in Puritan New England." Journal of American History, vol. 82, no. 1, 1995, pp. 15-36.

Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher. "Vertuous Women Found: New England Ministerial Literature, 1668-1735." American Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 1, 1976, pp. 20-40.

Winship, Michael P. "Behold the Woman: The Anti-Feminist Backlash of the Puritan Reformation." Journal of Women’s History, vol. 19, no. 1, 2007, pp. 116-143.

Ziff, Larzer. "Puritanism and the 'Pedestrian Pleasures' of Massachusetts Bay Colony." Early American Literature, vol. 23, no. 1, 1988, pp. 51-70.

1480s - 1799 Estimated Slaves Imported by Europeans into the Western Hemisphere

Estimated Slave Imports to the New World, in the 17th Century

      Historian Lorean S. Walsh tells us in Slavery in the North American Mainland, Chapter 5 of The Cambridge World History of Slavery,European powers clearing land for farming, learning how to raise suitable crops for food in unfamiliar environments, erecting houses, & building up herds of Old World livestock required massive amounts of labor. Moreover, in order to procure essential supplies from their homelands, settlers had either to produce products in demand in Europe or to earn income to buy them through trade with other regions. With capital for development & workers willing to emigrate to the new settlements in short supply, colonists soon turned to novel solutions to alleviate their labor problems,

Initially some aristocratic investors expected to develop their holdings with European tenants, but the ready availability of land precluded tenancy as a viable option in most regions. Others hoped to persuade or force Native Americans to work for them, a strategy that also proved futile on the mainland. In the early seventeenth century, England was perceived to be overpopulated, so British colonists turned first to fellow countrymen to fill the labor gap. English men & women too poor to pay their passage to the New World were recruited to come to the colonies under indenture, working off the cost of transportation with a number of years of unpaid service.

• 
  

Spanish American 292,500

Brazil 560,000

British Caribbean 263,700

Dutch Caribbean 40,000

French Caribbean 155,800

Danish Caribbean 4,000

British North America 10,000

By the 1480s Portuguese ships were already transporting Africans for use as enslaved laborers on the sugar plantations in the Cape Verde & Madeira islands in the eastern Atlantic. 

Spanish conquistadors took enslaved Africans to the Caribbean after 1502, but Portuguese merchants continued to dominate the transatlantic slave trade for another century and a half, operating from their bases in the Congo-Angola area along the west coast of Africa. 

The Dutch became the foremost traders of enslaved people during parts of the 1600s, and in the following century English and French merchants controlled about half of the transatlantic slave trade, taking a large percentage of their human cargo from the region of West Africa between the Sénégal and Niger rivers. 

In 1713 an agreement between Spain and Britain granted the British a monopoly on the trade of enslaved people with the Spanish colonies. Under the Asiento de negros, Britain was entitled to supply those colonies with 4,800 enslaved Africans per year for 30 years. (BTW The contract for this supply was assigned to the South Sea Company, of which British Queen Anne held some 22.5 percent of the stock.)

Studies affirm  the history of the African slave trade and its economic effect on western Africa, where coastal states became rich and powerful while savanna states were destabilized as their people were taken captive

Probably no more than a few hundred thousand Africans were taken to the Americas before 1600. In the 17th century, however, demand for enslaved labor rose sharply with the growth of sugar plantations in the Caribbean and tobacco plantations in the Chesapeake region in North America. The largest numbers of enslaved people were taken to the Americas during the 18th century, when, according to some historians’ estimates, nearly three-fifths of the total volume of the transatlantic slave trade took place.

A large percentage of the African people taken captive were women in their childbearing years and young men who normally would have been starting families. The European enslavers usually left behind persons who were elderly, disabled, or otherwise dependent—groups who were least able to contribute to the economic health of their societies.

Bibliography on Slavery in the Western Hemisphere

Books

Blackburn, Robin. The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492-1800. London: Verso, 1997.

Davis, David Brion. The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Eltis, David. The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Klein, Herbert S. The Atlantic Slave Trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Curtin, Philip D. The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.

Thornton, John K. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Lovejoy, Paul E. Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

Solow, Barbara L., ed. Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Klein, Herbert S., and Francisco Vidal Luna. Slavery in Brazil. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Berlin, Ira. Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998.

Horne, Gerald. The Dawning of the Apocalypse: The Roots of Slavery, White Supremacy, Settler Colonialism, and Capitalism in the Long Sixteenth Century. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2020.

Beckles, Hilary McD. A History of Barbados: From Amerindian Settlement to Nation-State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Williams, Eric. Capitalism and Slavery. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1944.

Articles

Eltis, David, and David Richardson. "The ‘Numbers Game’ and Routes to Slavery." The Journal of African History 44, no. 4 (2003): 667-676.

Miller, Joseph C. "Retention, Reinvention, and Remembering: Restoring Identities Through Enslavement in Africa and Under Slavery in Brazil." Slavery & Abolition 25, no. 2 (2004): 20-32.

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